I have some pretty basic questions about the different types of numbers in python (and other languages).
What is the difference between an integer and a floating point number? I'd appreciate a detailed answer explaining some of the fundamentals.

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You can think of integer numbers as decimals:
1, 300, 7000

Floating point numbers are a sequence of decimals that contain a decimal point, an exponent part, or followed by one or more digits or both:
0, 0.0, 1.0, 1e0

If you are familiar with C, you can think of a floating point number as a double.

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